Mangosteen’s blood sugar-lowering ability is said to come from its tannic acid and even more so from its oligomeric proanthocyanidin complexes . OPCs are naturally occurring plant metabolites that are widely available in fruits, vegetables, nuts, seeds, flowers and bark. A mangosteen tree produces tart yet sweet fruit that’s deep purple when ripe.

It has thick, dark green, glossy leaves, 15–25 cm (6–10 inches) long, borne in opposite pairs along the stem, and large rose-pink flowers. The fruits are the size of a small orange, round or flattened on the ends. Mangosteens have a thick, hard, deep red rind surrounding snow-white flesh, which is in segments resembling those of a mandarin orange. Individual trees have been reported to yield more than 1,000 fruits in a season, but the plants usually produce good crops only in alternate years. Mangosteen, , also called purple mangosteen, handsome tropical tree native to Southeast Asia and cultivated for its tart-sweet fruit. The mangosteen fruit is highly valued for its juicy, delicate texture and slightly astringent flavour and is commonly eaten fresh, canned, or dried.

Research has also shown that xanthones from mangosteen extracts arenatural chemopreventive agents and have potential as anticancer drugs. Research reveals that this tropical fruit can boost the immune system, decrease inflammation and even fight cancer. Incorporating mangosteen in the diet is thought to be effective in weight lossin many cultures. The various nutrients found in this tropical fruit also ensure good health and well-being.

It is also used for stimulating the immune system and improving mental health. Mangosteen is used for many conditions, but so far, there isn’t enough scientific evidence to determine whether or not it is effective for any of them. In the 2015 study outlined above, scientists found that mangosteen may also act as an anti-inflammatory.

Looking to fend off colds and flus or just generally boost your immune system? In addition to being good for blood sugar, OPCs are primarily known for their antioxidant activity. They’ve also been reported to demonstrate antibacterial, antiviral, anticarcinogenic, anti-inflammatory, anti-allergic and vasodilatory actions. Long illegal in the U.S. due to the belief that they harbored the Asian fruit fly, mangosteens are no longer contraband. The mangosteen plant, orGarcinia mangostana,is a tropical tree from the Clusiaceae family, which is native to Southeast Asia. Our team aims to be not only thorough with its research, but also objective and unbiased.

Maturation of mangosteen fruits takes 5–6 months, with harvest occurring when the pericarps are purple. When the trees are approximately 25–30 cm (10–12 in), they are transplanted to the field at a spacing of 20–40 m (66–131 ft). After planting, the field is mulched in order to control weeds. Transplanting takes place in the rainy season because young trees are likely to be damaged by drought. Because young trees need shade, intercropping with banana, plantain, rambutan, durian or coconut leaves is effective. Coconut palms are mainly used in areas with a long dry season, as palms also provide shade for mature mangosteen trees.

Delta 10 Gummies FAQs is a tropical fruit originating from Southeast Asia. Because mangosteen is a rich source of xanthones, it may be a good idea to avoid concentrated sources of it if you have a blood clotting condition or are taking blood‒thinning medications. However, more concentrated forms — like supplements, juices, or powders — are not 100% risk-free. The fruit can also be found in juice form or as a powdered supplement. Fiber and vitamin C — both of which can be found in mangosteen — are important for a healthy immune system . Though this data is encouraging, more research is needed to better understand how mangosteen affects inflammation and disease progression in humans.

The mangosteen fruit itself is said to contain at least 20 known xanthones, and the majority of those are found in the fruit wall or pericarp. It’s always been popular in Southeast Asia, but why has it been gaining popularity around the world and is now commonly sold as a health supplement? Well, we now know it not only contains an impressive array of essential vitamins and minerals, but it also contains a group of phytochemicals called xanthones. They can maintain their freshness for up to two weeks, after which they tend to lose their flavor and nutritional value.

In the health and wellness industry, one of mangosteen’s biggest claims to fame is its potential to aid weight loss. Multiple test-tube studies reveal that xanthones can inhibit cancer cell growth, including in breast, stomach, and lung tissue . Mangosteen is an exotic, tropical fruit with a slightly sweet and sour flavor. Despite efforts described above to grow mangosteen in the Western Hemisphere, nearly the entire supply is imported from Thailand.

Speak with a healthcare provider to find out what dose might be best for a specific condition. Taking Kann ich CBD versehentlich überdosieren? by mouth or applying a gel containing mangosteen to the gums might help improve gum health. Refrigeration can help it to last longer, but it causes cold damage so it is best to store them at room temperature and eat them quickly. If you do need to store in the fridge, it’s recommended to limit cold damage by wrapping the fruit in newspaper and putting it in the upper part of your refrigerator.

For professional medical information on natural medicines, see Natural Medicines Comprehensive Database Professional Version. This Southeast Asian fruit was banned in the U.S. until October 2007 because it Hadley was though to harbor Asian fruit flies. Thankfully, however, this health-boosting fruit is no longer on the ban list, and that’s a good thing because it’s been shown to have some pretty amazing benefits.

Nutrition, Food & Recipes

If you’re opting for the juice then you could juice the white inner sections of the fruit yourself or buy the juice pre-made. A research study published in 2016 fed mice subjects a high fat diet along with a mangosteen supplement gained less weight compared to the control group. The mangosteen-supplemented mice also exhibited reductions in their LDL “bad” cholesterol. Another one of the major mangosteen benefits is its positive effect on the digestive system.

In Chinese food therapy, mangosteen is considered “cooling”, making it a good counterbalance to the “heaty” durian. There is also a legend about Queen Victoria offering a reward of 100 pounds sterling to anyone who could deliver to her the fresh fruit. Although this legend can be traced to a 1930 publication by the fruit explorer David Fairchild, it is not substantiated by any known historical document. People use mangosteen for serious gum infections, obesity, muscle strength, diarrhea, and many other conditions, but there is no good scientific evidence to support most of these uses. If mangosteen isn’t eaten raw or in juice form, then it’s most commonly added to smoothie recipes for a strong punch of nutritional benefits.

The CBD Gummies With THC fruit and rind can be effective in providing relief from stomach disorders such as diarrhea and dysentery. A traditional remedy for diarrhea is steeping the fruit rind in water overnight. This decoction is given to adults and children who have chronic diarrhea. For relief from dysentery, the dried fruit and rind are powdered and taken. This queen of fruits has many health benefits, the best of which are mentioned below.

One study from 2015 asked 30 people to drink a mangosteen-based beverage every day for 30 days. Researchers compared their blood to that of 30 people who had consumed a non-mangosteen-based drink or placebo. Most fruits, including mangosteen, are low in fat, sodium, and calories, helping people maintain a moderate weight. They are also free from cholesterol, which can contribute to chronic conditions such as heart disease and type 2 diabetes.

People who are pregnant, nursing, have a blood disorder, or are about to have an operation should avoid mangosteen-based medicines. It is important to note that studies on the health benefits of mangosteen have been small so far. First, mangosteen trees need a fully tropical climate and lots of time to grow. Small farms in Hawaii and Puerto Rico, started in the 1990s, are only now starting to bear fruit. Research to determine whether mangosteen supplements are safe for pregnant or breastfeeding women is currently insufficient, so it’s probably best to avoid it during these life stages. Researchers assert that mangosteen’s antioxidant and anti-inflammatory capacity is the main reason for these skin-protective effects, but more studies in this area are needed.

Tree And Fruit

The rind is inedible but can be easily removed with a serrated knife. The combination of the xanthone and fiber contents in Les meilleurs bonbons au CBD may help balance blood sugar. Similarly, a small number of studies observed that this compound may slow the progression of colon and breast cancer in mice . The vitamins and minerals in mangosteen are important for maintaining many bodily functions, including DNA production, muscle contraction, wound healing, immunity, and nerve signaling .

Donepezil Aricept Interacts With Mangosteen

If the young tree is bearing for the first time, 200–300 fruits may be produced, whereas at maturity, 500 fruits per season are average. At age 30 to 45 years in full maturity, each tree may yield as many as 3,000 fruits, with trees as old as 100 years still producing. The growth of the trees is retarded if the temperature is below 20 °C (68 °F). The ideal temperature range for growing and producing fruits is 25–35 °C (77–95 °F) with a relative humidity over 80%. The maximal temperature is 38–40 °C (100–104 °F), with both leaves and fruit being susceptible to scorching and sunburn, while the minimum temperature is 3–5 °C (37–41 °F).

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Another advantage of intercropping in mangosteen cultivation is the suppression of weeds. One variety of the juice called XANGO® Juice is composed of the whole mangosteen fruit plus other fruit juices. According to the company website, mangosteen juice benefits (specifically of XANGO® Juice) are said to include improved intestinal health, immune function and joint health.

The distribution of the fungus happens through contact with infected wood or thick rhizomorphs on tree stumps. Another common disease is the thread blight or white thread blight disease whereas the name comes from the mycelia which resembles thread. The spores spread with the help of wind, raindrops and insects, and thrive in shady, humid and wet conditions.

You’re forgiven if you haven’t, as this Southeast Asian fruit was banned in the U.S. until October 2007 because it was thought to harbor Asian fruit flies. To increase transparency to the user, we provide reference links marked by numbers in parentheses in the copy of the article. The entire list of reference links is also provided at the bottom of the article. In her free time, she loves to travel and taste different types of teas. Moisturizers keep oily skin hydrated and may help with acne treatment.

Are CBD gummies suitable for kids? is rich in antioxidants and xanthones, and the powerful health benefits of the tropical fruit include its ability to help fight cancer and boost heart health. It has potent anti-inflammatory and anti-microbial properties, which help in providing GI relief from issues such as diarrhea, dysentery, thrush, and urinary tract infections. Mangosteen also helps regulate the menstrual cycle, and improve skin health. Lots of mangosteen-based products, including supplements and juices, are available for people who would like to gain the health benefits of mangosteen but have difficulty finding fresh fruit. Mangosteens are known to contain powerful antioxidants, which are useful to the immune system and the entire body.

Medicinal Properties

Fresh mangosteen is marketed for only a short period of six to ten weeks due to its seasonal nature. It is mainly grown by smallholders and sold at fruit stalls by roadsides. Its irregular, short supply leads to wide price fluctuations throughout its season and over the years. Additionally, there is no standard product quality assessment or grading system, making international trade of the fruits difficult. The mangosteen still remains rare in Western markets, though its popularity is increasing, and it is often sold at a high price. Phellinus noxius living on the roots and trunk bases causes brown root disease, a name derived from the appearance of the mycelium-binding soil particles.

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The mangosteen has been cultivated in Java, Sumatra, Indochina, and the southern Philippines from antiquity. It was later established on the mainland in Guatemala, Honduras, Panama, and Ecuador. The mangosteen generally does not prosper outside the tropics and is usually found fresh only in local markets. Importation of the fruit was illegal in the United States until 2007 over fears of introducing the Asian fruit fly; imported mangosteens must first be irradiated to eliminate the pest. Mangosteen, with its anti-bacterial and anti-inflammatory properties, is beneficial to expedite the healing of wounds. The leaves and bark of the tree can be mixed with other medicinal herbs and applied to the wounds for a faster recovery.

Antioxidants are compounds that can neutralize the damaging effects of potentially harmful molecules called free radicals, which are linked to various chronic diseases . Moreover, a single cup of this fruit provides almost 14% of the RDI for fiber — a nutrient often lacking in people’s diets . Chemicals applied to root collars and tree stumps to control root diseases. Different management options can be applied to control mangosteen diseases.

However, after several additional days of storage, especially if unrefrigerated, the flesh inside the fruit might spoil without any obvious external indications. Using the hardness of the rind as an indicator of freshness for the first two weeks following harvest is therefore unreliable because the rind does not accurately reveal the interior condition of the flesh. If the exocarp is soft and yielding as it is when ripe and fresh from the tree, the fruit is usually good. Research has shown they can help fight cancer, combat inflammation and allergies, lower blood sugar, improve acne, boost heart health, bolster immunity, and aid digestion. Always talk with your doctor before using any super fruit supplement if you have health concerns. Mangosteen side effects from taking a mangosteen supplement may include an increased risk of bleeding in people with bleeding disorders.

The plant is used locally in traditional medicine and has been promoted as an alternative cancer treatment, but clinical studies in humans are lacking. According to a paper published in the journal Food Research International, mangosteen has a history of being a medicinal plant across Southeast Asia, one of its uses being to manage diabetes. Another study published in the Nutrients journal tested the safety and efficacy of mangosteen extract on obese female patients with insulin resistance. It found that extracts of the fruit could be used as a supplementary for managing obesity, insulin resistance, and inflammation. Research has been carried out to ascertain the various benefits of this fruit on the skin.

The information in our articles is NOT intended to replace a one-on-one relationship with a qualified health care professional and is not intended as medical advice. Our articles are evidence-based and contain scientific references, fact-checked by experts. We source information from studies, clinical trial findings, and meta-analyses published in peer-reviewed journals. Ginger also helps boost bone health, strengthen the immune system, and increase appetite. This spicy root is also good for mitigating obesity and relief from menstrual pain. Mangosteen is used for diarrhea, urinary tract infections , gonorrhea, thrush, tuberculosis, menstrual disorders, cancer, osteoarthritis, and an intestinal infection called dysentery.

Some people apply mangosteen to the skin for eczema and other skin conditions. Graviola is hailed as a wonder herb, but does it live up to its hype? Department of Agriculture, all fruits provide nutrients that are vital for good health. Fresh mangosteen may be difficult to come by, as it’s a relatively obscure fruit.

Very few adverse health effects have been reported from consuming mangosteen in its whole form, and it’s likely safe for most people. One study in mice treated with supplemental mangosteen extract observed a protective effect against ultraviolet-B radiation in the skin . Ultimately, more studies are needed to better understand how mangosteen may fit into an effective weight loss plan. One study found that mice on a high-fat diet who received supplemental doses of mangosteen gained significantly less weight than mice in the control group .

The purple mangosteen, known simply as mangosteen, is a fruit easy to love with its sweet and tangy taste. One Brazilian study even showed that an extract of mangosteen had both antimicrobial and anti-tumor abilities and therefore has therapeutic potential in treating infectious diseases as well as cancer. The antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties of turmeric, mainly due to its compound curcumin, is responsible for weight loss.

Mangosteen taste is so unique, you really need to try it to understand it. The tree itself has thick, dark green, glossy leaves and large, rose-pink flowers. Mangosteen is one of the “strange fruits” sometimes confused with rambutan, which is a red spiky fruit. Everyone knows what a mango is and what mango nutrition provides, but have you ever heard of a mangosteen?

Over the years, it has been cultivated in other Southeast Asian countries like Vietnam, Singapore, Sri Lanka, and India. The fruit has anticancer properties and in many of the Southeast Asian countries, the bark and the leaves of the plant and the pectin-rich fruit rind are also used for their medicinal benefits. Dried fruits are shipped to Singapore to be processed for medical uses which may include dysentery, skin disorders, and various other minor diseases in several countries across Asia. There is no reliable evidence that mangosteen juice, puree, bark or extracts is effective as a treatment for human diseases. Under favourable conditions, the slow-growing mangosteen tree can reach a height of 9.5 metres .

Its origin is uncertain due to widespread prehistoric cultivation. It grows mainly in Southeast Asia, southwest India and other tropical areas such as Colombia, Puerto Rico and Florida, where the tree has been introduced. The fruit of the mangosteen is sweet and tangy, juicy, somewhat fibrous, with fluid-filled vesicles , with an inedible, deep reddish-purple colored rind when ripe.

The medicinal drink can be prepared by boiling the leaves and the bark of the tree. Studies have suggested that the fruit has antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. However, there is not yet enough evidence to conclusively prove this. People have described its taste as a mix of lychee, peach, strawberry, and pineapple.

Vitamin C benefits also have been shown to stimulate both the production and function of leukocytes, the white blood cells that protect the body against both infectious disease and foreign invaders. Increased oxidative stress and a deficit in antioxidants are two factors that are believed to play a role in heart attack occurrence. Oxidative stress is essentially an imbalance between the production of free radicals and the ability of the body to counteract or detoxify their harmful effects through neutralization by antioxidants. Mangosteen has been shown to be an effective home remedy for acne.

The fruit is also rich in vitamins and minerals such as vitamin A, B-vitamins , vitamin C, potassium, and zinc as per the USDA National Nutrient Database. Other minerals such as calcium, magnesium, sodium, phosphorus, carotene, and cryptoxanthin, are also found in mangosteen. Mangosteen juice is a rich source of antioxidants and is often utilized in folk medicine as an “anti-aging” drink. The fact that mangosteen is high in xanthones, which are extremely powerful antioxidants, may be helpful in reducing heart attack risk.

Scientific research has shown that extracts of mangosteen have both anti-allergy and anti-inflammatory properties. One study specifically showed that these extracts worked better at inhibiting pro-allergy prostaglandin than an anti-allergy drug used in Japan. This study concluded that xanthones should be used as an agent for cancer prevention and as cancer treatment in combination with other therapies. Mangosteens have been the focus of many anticancer studies, and results have been very positive to date support their standing as cancer-fighting foods. Seedlings take eight to 15 years to bear fruit, and the trees usually produce good crops only in alternate years. In the 1800s, Queen Victoria is said to have offered knighthood to anyone who brought her fresh mangosteens from Asia.

These antioxidants contain cell boosters, the aforementioned xanthones, which contain various properties that have medicinal value. This is the reason why it is deemed a healing fruit and can be used to reverse the effects of diseases. One study published in Food Science and Nutrition shows the daily consumption of mangosteen drink improved antioxidant levels in the body. Mangosteen is a reddish fruit with white, juicy flesh that is popular in Thailand. It is known as the queen of fruits because of its exquisite taste, which has notes of ripe strawberry, fragrant peach, and creamy vanilla ice cream. The plant of the mangosteen may have originated in Thailand or Myanmar .

Initially streaked with red, the exocarp pigmentation transitions from green to red to dark purple, indicating a final ripening stage. This entire process takes place over a period of ten days as the edible quality of the fruit peaks. Over the days following removal from the tree, the exocarp hardens to an extent depending upon post-harvest handling and ambient storage conditions, especially relative humidity levels. If the ambient humidity is high, exocarp hardening may take a week or longer when the flesh quality is peaking and excellent for consumption.

It’s easier to find this unique fruit frozen or canned in syrup (yuck!). You can also order fresh mangosteen online, but it’s a bit pricey. Don’t worry, these tropical fruits really aren’t that difficult to open or consume. Mangosteen nutrition is packed with xanthones, which support many of vital functions of the body, including immune health.

As seed formation involves no sexual fertilization, the seedling is genetically identical to the mother plant. If allowed to dry, a seed dies quickly, but if soaked, seed germination takes between 14 and 21 days when the plant can be kept in a nursery for about 2 years growing in a small pot. Vegetative propagation is difficult and seedlings are more robust and reach fruiting earlier than vegetative propagated plants. Mangosteen has most often been used by adults in doses of up to 560 mg by mouth daily, for up to 12 weeks.

In each fruit, the fragrant edible flesh that surrounds each seed is botanically endocarp, i.e., the inner layer of the ovary. The mangosteen extract showed strong anti-skin cancer effects on both skin cancer cell lines, showing its potential as skin cancer natural treatment. Skin cancers are often resistant to conventional chemotherapy, but mangosteen has shown ability to naturally fight cancers of the skin. One study published in Food and Chemical Toxicologyexamined the anti-skin cancer properties of crude ethanol extract of mangosteen pericarp on human squamous cell carcinoma and melanoma. The powerful health benefits of dates include providing an energy boost, increasing iron in the body, and aiding digestion. Anti-inflammatory and anti-carcinogenic properties, according to research published in the journal Nutrients.

Before ripening, the mangosteen shell is fibrous and firm, but becomes soft and easy to pry open when the fruit ripens. To open a mangosteen, the shell can be scored with a knife, pried gently along the score with the thumbs until it cracks, and then pulled apart to reveal the fruit. Alternatively, the mangosteen can be opened without a knife by squeezing the shell from the bottom until it breaks, allowing the shell to be removed and the fruit eaten while intact with the stem. Occasionally, during peeling of ripe fruits, the purple exocarp juice may stain skin or fabric. Consuming fresh mangosteen fruit can help ward off constipation and all of the digestive distress that goes along with this common health concern. It’s also a good source of vitamin C, which helps scavenge harmful, pro-inflammatory free radicals that can cause illness.

A tropical tree, the mangosteen must be grown in consistently warm conditions, as exposure to temperatures below 0 °C (32 °F) for prolonged periods will usually kill a mature plant. They are known to recover from brief cold spells rather well, often with damage only to young growth. Experienced horticulturists have grown this species outdoors, and brought them to fruit in extreme south Florida. The 15th-century Chinese record Yingya Shenglan described mangosteen as mang-chi-shih , a native plant of Southeast Asia of white flesh with delectable sweet and sour taste. Due to its possible ability to slow blood clotting, you should stop taking mangosteen two weeks before any surgery.

Specific plant compounds in mangosteen — including xanthones — have antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects, which may help fight the development and spread of cancerous cells . Though mangosteen is a relatively obscure fruit, it shouldn’t be overlooked, as it may offer many health benefits due to its rich supply of nutrients, fiber, and unique antioxidants. Mangosteen , also known as the purple mangosteen, is a tropical evergreen tree with edible fruit native to tropical lands surrounding the Indian Ocean.

Young seedlings prefer a high level of shade and mature trees are shade-tolerant. This copyrighted material is provided by Natural Medicines Comprehensive Database Consumer Version. Information from this source is evidence-based and objective, and without commercial influence.

They concluded this by measuring the C-reactive protein, a substance that signals inflammation levels. Over the 30 days of the study, levels of this protein in the mangosteen group reduced by an average of 46%. At the end of the 30 days, the mangosteen group had 15% more antioxidants in their bloodstream than the placebo group. Fresh and frozen fruits and vegetables are processed and stored differently. Fruits are very nutritious and contain lots of fiber and antioxidants.

Some of the symptoms of stem canker are branch splitting, gummosis and bark blistering. The main areas where the disease was observed are Thailand, Malaysia and North Queensland. Mangosteen trees may reach fruit-bearing in as little as 6 years, but may require 12 or more years, depending on climate and cultivation methods. The yield of the mangosteen is variable, depending on climate and age of the tree.

An important post-harvest disease affecting mangosteen especially in Thailand is called Diplodia fruit rot which, as a secondary pathogen, enters the host plant through wounds. In breeding of perennial mangosteen, selection of rootstock and grafting are significant issues to overcome constraints to production, harvesting or seasonality. Most of the genetic resources for breeding are in germplasm collections, whereas some wild species are cultivated in Malaysia and the Philippines. Conservation methods are chosen because storage of seeds under dried and low temperature conditions has not been successful.

This content is for informational and educational purposes only. It is not intended to provide medical advice or to take the place of such advice or treatment from a personal physician. All readers/viewers of this content are advised to consult their doctors or qualified health professionals regarding specific health questions. Neither Dr. Axe nor the publisher CBD Snacks of this content takes responsibility for possible health consequences of any person or persons reading or following the information in this educational content. All viewers of this content, especially those taking prescription or over-the-counter medications, should consult their physicians before beginning any nutrition, supplement or lifestyle program.

Mangosteens are helpful in reducing the risk of stroke or myocardial infarction. However, the study focused on rodents, so more scientific research focusing on a human population is required to further these claims. The pericarps of mangosteen contain xanthones which exhibit anticancer, anti-inflammatory, and anti-bacterial effects. This part of the fruit can be eaten raw or added to smoothies or tropical fruit salads for a delicious boost of flavor. Studies indicate that mangosteen extract helps prevent mental decline, decrease brain inflammation, and improve symptoms of depression in mice, though human studies in this area are lacking .

Mangosteen twigs have been used as chew sticks in Ghana, and the wood has been used to make spears and cabinetry in Thailand. The rind of the mangosteen fruit has also been used to tan leather in China. The extract of mangosteen peels is traditionally used in Indonesia as natural dye for coloring of brown, dark brown, purple or red hues applied to tenun ikat and batik textiles.

As ahigh-fiber food, this fruit makes an excellent choice for digestive health. The ability of xanthones to both prevent and treat cancer have been demonstrated in different stages of cancer formation, including initiation, promotion and progression. The xanthones have also shown their ability to control cancer cell division and growth, programmed cell death, inflammation, and cancer metastasis. This article is based on scientific evidence, written by experts and fact checked by our trained editorial staff. Note that the numbers in parentheses (1, 2, etc.) are clickable links to medically peer-reviewed studies.

Without fumigation or irradiation , fresh mangosteens were illegal to import into the United States until 2007. Following export from its natural growing regions in Southeast Asia , the fresh fruit is available seasonally in some local markets in North America such as those of Chinatowns. Mangosteens are available fresh, canned and frozen in Western countries. Mangosteen trees are sensitive to water availability and application of fertilizer input which is increased with the age of trees, regardless of region.